The Socrates Cheatsheet

I recently sat down and spoke to Donald Robertson for 3 hours all about Socrates. Donald has released a book called How to Think Like Socrates and is a true expert in both the life and the philosophy of this legend.

This article serves as useful companion to the podcast, which you can listen to here:

Biography of Socrates

Socrates, the founding figure of Western philosophy, was born in Athens around 470 BCE. He was the son of Sophroniscus, a stonemason or sculptor, and Phaenarete, a midwife. Though he lived his entire life in Athens, he ventured out as a hoplite (a heavily armed soldier) during the Peloponnesian War, serving his city-state in battles like Potidaea and Delium. Socrates was famously disheveled in appearance, typically wandering the Athenian agora, barefoot, deep in conversation with anyone who would indulge him.

Socrates never wrote anything himself; our knowledge of his teachings comes primarily from his students, Plato and Xenophon. He lived modestly, often challenging the rich and powerful on matters of morality, wisdom, and justice. His unique teaching style, known as the Socratic Method, involved asking probing questions to expose contradictions in people’s beliefs, thus leading them toward greater understanding and critical thinking.

In 399 BCE, Socrates was charged with corrupting the youth of Athens and impiety (failing to honor the city’s gods). Despite the severity of the charges, Socrates used his trial, as recounted in Plato’s Apology, to continue to teach, ultimately accepting the death sentence rather than compromise his philosophical principles. He was executed by drinking hemlock, leaving behind a powerful legacy that shaped the foundations of Western philosophy and influenced countless subsequent thinkers.

1. No Writings of His Own: Socrates never wrote down his teachings, believing the spoken word was superior to written text for meaningful dialogue. All we know of his life comes from accounts by Plato, Xenophon, and Aristophanes.
2. The Oracle's Revelation: The Oracle at Delphi proclaimed that no one was wiser than Socrates. This led Socrates on a lifelong quest to understand the nature of true wisdom, ultimately concluding that his own wisdom lay in recognizing his ignorance.
3. Socratic Method: The method involved asking a series of questions that force individuals to confront their assumptions. It’s a powerful technique used even today in therapy, education, and critical discussions.
4. Focus on Ethics: Unlike earlier philosophers who pondered natural science, Socrates emphasized ethics—what it means to live a good life, to be just, and to pursue virtue.
5. A Lover of Paradoxes: Socrates loved challenging prevailing norms. He said, for instance, "No one does evil knowingly", meaning that wrong actions stem from ignorance rather than intent.
6. Indifference to Wealth: Socrates embraced poverty. He lived simply, without shoes, money, or any indulgent possessions, claiming these material concerns distracted from the pursuit of true wisdom.
7. Criticism of Democracy: He was skeptical of Athenian democracy, especially the idea that any citizen—without sufficient education—was capable of making important decisions. This was a significant reason for his enemies labeling him as subversive.
8. The Trial: Accused of corrupting the youth and impiety, Socrates was offered the chance to suggest an alternative to the death penalty. Instead of exile, he provocatively suggested free meals for life, as an Athenian benefactor.
9. Execution by Hemlock: Socrates chose death over fleeing Athens, viewing it as his duty to follow the laws of the state, even if they were unjustly applied.
10. Legacy: Socrates' influence extended to his most famous student, Plato, who laid the groundwork for Western philosophical thought, and indirectly, to Plato’s student, Aristotle, further shaping Western knowledge.

In the podcast interview, Donald Robertson offered profound insights into how Socrates’ philosophy can be understood and applied in today’s world. Here are some highlights, blending biography, philosophy, and practical wisdom:

The Context of Socratic Athens

Understanding Socrates' Athens is essential to grasp his life. The city was in a period of turmoil due to the Peloponnesian War, and its democracy was vulnerable to instability. According to Donald Robertson:

"The political turmoil of Athens directly influenced Socrates' critique of democracy. He believed not everyone was qualified to make decisions that affect the whole city."

This context was pivotal to the way Socrates engaged his fellow citizens, questioning how anyone could presume to have knowledge of the ideal way to run the state without deep self-reflection and examination.

Socratic Legacy Through His Disciples

Socrates’ teachings lived on through Plato and Xenophon. Plato portrayed him as the embodiment of philosophy—constantly questioning and seeking truth. Meanwhile, Xenophon gave a different, more practical side of Socrates:

"Socrates comes across very differently in Xenophon compared to Plato’s works. Xenophon’s Socrates is more concerned with everyday ethics and practical wisdom." (Donald Robertson)

Through these disciples, we see the multiple facets of Socrates’ influence—his skepticism, his ethical principles, and his love for rigorous questioning.

Trial and Death of Socrates

Donald offered rich commentary on the trial of Socrates. He emphasized how Socrates used his trial as an opportunity to continue teaching, even in the face of death. The Apology, one of Plato's dialogues, serves as a powerful testament to Socratic bravery:

"The trial of Socrates wasn’t just a legal matter; it was a philosophical statement. His acceptance of the death sentence was his final lesson in what it means to live with integrity." (Donald Robertson)

Cognitive Flexibility and Socratic Methods in Therapy

Donald discussed cognitive flexibility, a skill Socrates exemplified through his questioning techniques. This flexibility is vital for modern-day emotional resilience and is reflected in modern Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT):

"Genuinely resilient people use different techniques and strategies in different situations. They’re more adaptive. That’s what Socrates did—constantly questioned the context of actions and adjusted accordingly." (Donald Robertson)

The Two-Column Technique was another important Socratic-inspired method. In his dialogues, Socrates often made his interlocutors see the dual aspects of concepts like justice versus injustice, asking them to reconsider rigid beliefs. Robertson suggested adapting this technique to modern life for building nuanced perspectives.

Practical Exercises Inspired by Socrates

To make Socratic teachings actionable, Donald provided a series of practical exercises:

• Daily Questioning Practice: Take ten minutes each day to ask yourself probing questions about your beliefs. Socrates believed that self-examination was the key to an examined life, and this practice allows for constant growth.
• Two-Column Reflection Exercise: Robertson suggested creating a two-column list for evaluating different values, inspired by Socrates’ method. For example, comparing situations where honesty is a virtue versus situations where lying may be justified, like when saving someone from harm.
• Engaging in Dialogues: Engage with others in discussions using the Socratic Method. Focus on asking questions instead of giving opinions, to see if you can help others explore their beliefs more deeply.

Socratic Irony and Emotional Resilience

Socrates famously used irony to expose ignorance, often pretending to be ignorant to help his interlocutors come to their realizations:

"Socrates wasn’t confrontational for the sake of it. His irony was a tool to get people to challenge their deeply held but unexamined beliefs." (Donald Robertson)

Robertson explained how cognitive flexibility and irony are effective tools for dealing with rigid thinking and building emotional resilience, traits crucial for facing today’s challenges.

Socrates’ Relationship with Xanthippe

One of the less-discussed aspects of Socrates’ life was his relationship with Xanthippe, who was often portrayed as a challenging figure. Robertson offered a nuanced perspective:

"Xanthippe had a fiery temperament, but we must understand that Athenian culture was far more expressive. Socrates himself used his marriage as a training ground for emotional resilience."

Socrates even joked about how living with a difficult spouse was a great way to learn patience and tolerance, comparing it to learning how to control a difficult horse.

Socrates and the Modern Self-Help Movement

Robertson drew parallels between Socrates and the modern self-help movement but also highlighted a key distinction:

"Modern self-help books often offer rigid rules for living. Socrates, in contrast, emphasized that the true path to wisdom is through questioning, not following rigid rules."

Instead of giving people answers, Socrates provided questions, forcing people to look inward and reflect on the nature of their beliefs and actions. This is often missing in today's self-help literature, which tends to provide a more prescriptive approach.

Practical Wisdom and Stoic Influence

Socrates is widely regarded as a precursor to Stoic thought. His belief that virtue is the highest good and his pursuit of moral excellence deeply influenced Stoicism:

"Many of the core practices in Stoicism—like questioning your impressions or accepting what’s outside your control—have roots in Socrates’ teachings." (Donald Robertson)

Socrates believed that controlling our internal responses was more important than controlling external events, a principle later picked up by Stoics like Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius.

Socrates taught us that wisdom is not about knowing all the answers but about constantly questioning and being open to new perspectives. Here are some actionable takeaways for applying his wisdom in your life:

Daily Questions Challenge

• Challenge Yourself: Each day, take a belief you hold and ask, "How do I know this is true? What evidence supports it, and what evidence contradicts it?"
• Seek Contradictions: Identify areas in your thoughts or beliefs where there might be contradictions. Use Socratic questioning to explore these areas deeper.

Embrace Adversity Like Socrates

• See Setbacks as Teachers: Socrates’ calm demeanor at his trial teaches us to face challenges head-on, using them as opportunities to grow. Robertson highlighted how cognitive flexibility is key to seeing these challenges from multiple angles, allowing you to thrive rather than be overwhelmed.
• Cultivate Emotional Resilience: Take a page from Socrates’ marriage to Xanthippe—learn to practice patience and tolerance when confronted with emotionally challenging people.

Quotes for Reflection

• “The trial of Socrates wasn’t just a legal matter; it was a philosophical statement. His acceptance of the death sentence was his final lesson in what it means to live with integrity.” - Donald Robertson
• “No one typically develops emotional resilience by just depending on one strategy all the time. Genuinely resilient people use different techniques and different strategies in different situations.” - Donald Robertson
• “Socrates emphasized that the true path to wisdom is through questioning, not following rigid rules.” - Donald Robertson

Further Resources

• Donald Robertson's New Book: How to Think Like Socrates is out now. You can get it here.
• Audiobook Version: The book is also available on Audible.
• Writings of Plato and Xenophon: Start with Plato's Apology, Meno, and Xenophon’s Memorabilia for firsthand accounts of Socratic philosophy.
• Waking Up App: Donald Robertson has a course on Stoicism available on Sam Harris’s Waking Up app for deeper insights into applying these principles.

Final Thoughts

Socrates' teachings have stood the test of time because they are built on the most fundamental human capacity: the ability to question. In a world of quick solutions and rigid self-help advice, Socratic wisdom invites us to slow down, engage in dialogue, and critically examine what we believe to be true.

If you find yourself struggling with life’s complexities, remember Socrates' simple but profound lesson: an unexamined life is not worth living. Start questioning, and let the journey of genuine self-improvement begin.